"Farmers harvesting agricultural produce" by The British Library is marked CC0 1.0.
In family history research most of us will find that we had ancestors who worked as Agricultural Labourers, but what were their lives like? In Part One we look at how they found work, what their working day was like, how they dressed and where they lived.
Enclosure, by which previously common land passed into the hands of individuals, had been going on since the 12th century. However, it increased greatly in scope during the Tudor period, with the local aristocracy creating large estates at the expense of smallholders. Deprived of grazing or foraging rights, many of these smallholders were forced to abandon their ancient farmed strips and many villages went out of existence as a result. In the process a class of landless men came into being who were forced to work the land of the rich landowners or their tenants for wages.
There were two types of such workers, though the differences between them were somewhat blurred. Farm Servants were employed on fixed contracts of 6, 9 or 12 months and usually worked around the Farm buildings themselves; in such roles as stable-lad or dairy-maid. They were usually young, single and mobile. Agricultural Labourers were employed annually to work the land belonging to the farm. They were usually more settled, often married, men, who lived in buildings owned by the landowner or cottages 'tied' to the landowner's estate.
Increasing urbanisation in the 18th and 19th Centuries drew Labourers away from the countryside and into the towns and cities. As late as 1851, however, as evidenced by the Census of that year, there were still 1,460,896 people working as an Agricultural Labourer, Farm Servant or Shepherd; more than in any other field of employment. A quarter of the agricultural workforce were women. Many of these were the wives of Agricultural Labourers and sometimes their unpaid labour was a condition of their husband's employment.
An Agricultural Labourer's year ran from November-October. Hiring or Mop Fairs had been held during Martinmas Week in November for Centuries in local market towns; often being combined with cattle and sheep markets. Here Agricultural Labourers seeking employment for the coming year mingled freely with the local landowners; often dressed in their Sunday best and carrying a symbol of their speciality - such as a Crook for a Shepherd. Deals were struck across a handshake or the passing of a ‘fastening penny’. Despite their loose nature such 'contracts' were legally binding and a Labourer could neither resign nor be sacked without good cause; breaking a contract could ruin a man's reputation for the following year. The nature of such hirings meant that Agricultural Labourers could be highly mobile, chasing higher wages wherever they were offered.
A typical working day began before daybreak. After breakfasting a Labourer would walk the, sometimes significant, distance to the farmhouse to receive his instructions for the day from either the Farmer or his Bailiff. Once in the fields he would be generally joined by his wife and children. Women would usually be employed on lighter work such as driving cows or sowing seeds, but it was not unknown for them to help drive a plough. Children were employed in such tasks as picking fruit, weeding or removing stones from tilled fields. There was a break at midday for lunch. In some parts of the country, men ate cooked food wrapped in pastry for easy carrying - the origin of the 'pasty' - while in others they ate uncooked food such as cheese, bread, onions, and fruit which were wrapped in a cloth; the origin of the 'ploughman's lunch'. Work ended with the onset of darkness.
The work was seasonal and in quieter times a Labourer might not be called upon for several days. This was a serious matter as, since they were paid by the day, it meant a Labourer and his family might have no income for a significant period. Harvest time was the busiest on a Farm and a Labourer's family attempted to put some money behind them by benefitting from piece-work aimed at getting the crop in as quickly as possible. Most families attempted to supplement their income with various house industries such as straw plaiting, lace making, framework knitting, basketry and glove making. This workload usually fell on the women and children, but the men were not above helping during the short winter days when work on the farm was much reduced.
Agricultural workers developed their own style of dress, though this changed over time. At the turn of the 19th century, stockings, breeches, wide-cut and collarless shirt, waistcoat, jacket and wide-brimmed hat were the common attire. In the mid and southern counties of England, and to a lesser extent Wales, loose-fitting smocks were often worn. The length of these varied, while shape and fit were added through ‘smocking’ – the gathering and stitching of the fabric in appropriate places. During the 1800’s, ‘smocking’ was used to colourfully pattern the front of the smock; often advertising a man’s working speciality. By about 1840, however, although the loose shirt and waistcoat were retained, working men were wearing full length trousers and often a colourful handkerchief was tied round the neck. Increasing mechanisation allowed hard-wearing materials to be produced relatively cheaply and the trousers were often of fustian and the jackets of corduroy.
While Farm Servants usually resided in the farm buildings themselves, Agricultural Labourers would be housed in outlying cottages. These were usually 2-up, 2-down structures, in reality far too small for the large families of the period. The upstairs rooms would be used as bedrooms; one for the parents and youngest children, the other for everybody else. The second bedroom usually had a curtain divider to allow some privacy between the sexes. An outdoor privy and animal enclosures would be in close proximity to the main building, with accompanying health hazards. Although such cottages were a step-on on the tenements occupied by many working families in the towns and cities, a survey in 1834 by a Royal Commission for the Poor Law found that almost all were old and in a poor state of repair.
A Labourer’s accommodation also varied depending upon the type of farm he was employed on. In a so-called ‘Open’ village, the land would be largely owned by private individuals. Here, Labourer’s cottages tended to be of the inferior sort and rents higher. There also tended to be more rowdiness in the local area. However, workers were left to their own devices and largely did as they pleased providing their behaviour didn’t impact upon their employers. In a ‘Closed’ village, the land was all part of a Manorial Estate and employees were subject to the rules and regulations of the estate. Most estate managers were benevolent, however, and keen to keep the good will of key or diligent workers. As a result, accommodation tended to be better and good workers were encouraged to make their employment long-term. So, for example, cottages might be provided with a garden or allotment on which workers could grow their own food or keep animals.
In Part two we look at the wages of agricultural labourers, attempts by them to force changes to their working conditions and the impact of increasing industrialisation and urbanisation.